LGBT Parenting refers to lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people who raise one or more children as parents or foster parents. These include: children raised by same-sex couples ( same-sex parenting ), children raised by single LGBT parents, and children raised by opposite sex couples where at least one pair is LGBT.
LGBT people can be parents through a variety of ways including current or previous relationships, coparenting, adoption, donor insemination, reciprocal IVF, and surrogacy.
Scientific research has consistently shown that gay and lesbian parents are equally fit and capable as heterosexual parents, and their children are psychologically healthy and well-adjusted as maintained by heterosexual parents. The main associations of mental health professionals in the US, Canada, and Australia have not identified credible empirical studies that show otherwise.
Video LGBT parenting
Form
LGBT people can become parents through a variety of ways including current or previous relationships, coparenting, adoption, foster care, donor insemination, reciprocal IVF, and surrogacy. A gay, lesbian, or transgendered man who later transforms may have children in the opposite sex relationship, such as mixed-oriented marriages, for various reasons.
Some children do not know they have LGBT parents; out issues vary and some parents may never disclose to their children that they identify as LGBT. Thus, how children respond to their outgoing LGBT parents has nothing to do with their sexual orientation or gender identification of choice, but rather by how parents respond to outbound action; ie whether there is a dissolution of a parent partnership or more precisely if the parent maintains a healthy, open, and communicative relationship after exit or during a transitional period in the case of a trans parent.
Many lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people are parents. In the 2000 US Census, for example, 33 per cent of female females' sex partners and 22 per cent of male husband-wife households reported at least one child under the age of 18 living at home. In 2005, approximately 270,313 children in the United States lived in households headed by same-sex couples.
Adoption
Adoption by same-sex couples is legal in dozens of countries and in some areas of the United States, Australia and Mexico.
Judgements
In January 2008, the European Court of Human Rights ruled that same-sex couples have the right to adopt children.
In 2010, a court in Florida stated that the reports and studies found that there was no difference in homosexual parenting or adjustment of their children , therefore the Court felt confident that the matter was so far-off dispute that no it makes sense to hold back the opposite
Substitute
Some gay couples, especially male partners, decide to have a replacement pregnancy. A substitute is a woman who carries an egg that is fertilized by one man's sperm. Some women become money substitutes, others for humanitarian reasons or both. Parents using surrogacy services can be stigmatized.
Insemination
Insemination is a method most used by lesbian couples. That is when a partner is fertilized with donor sperm injected through a syringe. Some men donate sperm for humanitarian reasons, others for money or both. In some countries, donors may choose to be anonymous (eg in Spain) and in other countries they can not have anonymity (English).
IVF reciprocity
IVF reciprocity is used by couples who have female reproductive organs. By using in-vitro fertilization, the eggs are removed from one pair to be used to make the embryo that other couples hope will bring about a successful pregnancy.
Developing methods
Currently scientists are doing research on alternative types of human parents who can help same-sex couples to have children. One possibility is to get sperm from skin stem cells.
Maps LGBT parenting
Statistics
According to the US Census Snapshot published in December 2007, same-sex couples with children had significantly less economic resources and significantly lower homeownership rates than heterosexual married couples.
According to the 2013-2014 survey conducted in Poland by the Institute of Psychology of the Polish Academy of Sciences (IP PAN) on 3000 LGBT people in same-sex relations living in the country, 9% (11.7% women and 4.6% ) of LGBT groups combined are parents. The Canadian Census in 2011 has similar conclusions to research in Poland - 9.4% of Canadian gay couples raise children.
Research
In the United States, studies on the effect of first-gay and lesbian care on children were made in the 1970s, and expanded into the 1980s in the context of an increasing number of gay and lesbian parents looking for biological custody of their children. The widespread pattern of children raised from infancy in a gay or lesbian home are two relatively new parents.
Methodology
LGBT care studies sometimes suffer from small and/or non-random samples and the inability to apply all possible controls, due to the small population of LGBT care and cultural and social barriers to identify as LGBT parents.
The 1993 review published in the Journal of Divorce & amp; Married again has identified fourteen studies that discuss the effects of LGBT care on children. This study concludes that all studies have no external validity and therefore: "The conclusion that there is no significant difference in children raised by lesbian mothers versus heterosexual mothers is not supported by published research databases."
Fitzgerald's analysis in 1999 describes some methodological difficulties:
Many of these studies suffer from the same limitations and weaknesses, with the main obstacle being the difficulty in obtaining a representative random sample in an almost invisible population. Many lesbian and gay parents are not open about their sexual orientation because of the real fear of discrimination, homophobia, and the threat of losing custody of their children. Those who participate in this type of research are usually relatively open about their homosexuality and, therefore, may bias research into particular groups of gay and lesbian parents.
Due to the inevitable use of convenience samples, the sample size is usually very small and the majority of the study participants end up looking quite homogeneous - for example. white, middle class, urban, and highly educated. Another pattern is the wide difference between the amount of research conducted with children of gay fathers and those with lesbian mothers...
Another important potential factor is the possibility of a biased social desire when the subject responds in a way that presents itself and his family in the most desirable light. Such a phenomenon seems likely to be due to the desire of this population to offset and reverse the negative image and discrimination. As a result, the findings of this study can be rejected by self-presentation bias.
According to an 2001 review of 21 studies by Stacey and Biblarz published in the American Sociological Review: "The researchers did not have reliable data on the number and location of lesbigay parents with children in the general population, there were no there are studies of child development based on random and representative samples from the family Most research relies on small-scale samples, snowballs and comfort taken primarily from networks and private and community institutions.Most of the research to date has been done on white mothers lesbians who are relatively well-educated, adult, and are in relatively progressive urban centers, most often in California or Northeast countries. "
In more recent studies, many of these issues have been resolved due to factors such as social climate change for LGBT people.
The Herek newspaper at American Psychologist states:
The methodological sophistication and quality of the overall study in this domain has increased over the years, as expected for each new area of ​​empirical investigation. More recent research has reported data from community-based probability and comfort samples, using more rigorous assessment techniques, and has been published in highly respected and widely cited developmental psychology journals, including Child Development and Developmental Psychology . Data are increasingly available from prospective studies. In addition, while the initial study sample consisted mainly of children born into heterosexual relationships that subsequently dissolved when one parent came out as gay or lesbian, new samples were more likely to include children conceived in same-sex relationships or adopted at infancy by same-sex couples. As such, they are less likely to confuse the effect of having a sexual minority parent with the consequences of divorce.
A 2002 literature review identified 20 studies that examined outcomes among children raised by gay or lesbian parents and found that these children were not systematically different from those raised by heterosexual parents on one of the learning outcomes.
In the 2009 affidavit filed in the case of Gill v. Office of Personnel Management , Michael Lamb, a professor of psychology and head of the Department of Social Psychology and Development at Cambridge University, stated:
The methodology used in mainstream parenting studies meets the standards for research in the field of developmental psychology and general psychology. Special studies for same-sex parenting are published in leading journals on child and adolescent development, such as Child Development, published by the Society for Research in Child Development, Developmental Psychology, published by the American Psychological Association, and The Journal. Child Psychology and Psychiatry, peer-reviewed peer-reviewed journal in the field of child development. Most research appears in these highly thorough and highly selective journals, whose standards represent the expert consensus on generally accepted social scientific standards for research on child and adolescent development. Prior to publication in these journals, this study was required to undergo a rigorous peer-review process, and as a result, they were the kind of research that was deemed to be reliable by each profession. Research bodies in same-sex families are consistent with standards in the relevant field and produce reliable conclusions. "
The 25-year long Gartrell and Bos longitudinal study, published in 2010, is limited to mothers seeking donor insemination and who may be more motivated than women in other circumstances. Gartrell and Bos noted that research limitations included using non-random samples, and lesbian and control groups were not matched for race or area of ​​residence. The research was supported by grants from the Gill Foundation, the Lesbian Health Fund of the Gay and Lesbian Medical Association, the Horizons Foundation, and Roy Scrivner Fund from the American Psychological Foundation.
Michael J. Rosenfeld, professor of sociology at Stanford University, writes in a 2010 study published in Demographics that "[A] criticism of the literature - that the sample size of the study is too small to allow for strong statistical tests - continues become relevant. "Rosenfeld's research," the first person to use a large sample of national representative data, "found that same-sex couples showed normal results in school. "The core findings here," the study reported, "offer a validation measure for a small sample study before, and much debated."
According to a 2005 short report by the American Psychological Association:
In summary, studies of diversity among families with lesbian and gay parents and the potential effects of such diversity in children are rare (Martin, 1993, 1998, Patterson, 1995b, 2000, 2001, 2004; Perrin, 2002; Stacey & amp; Biblarz, 2001; Tasker, 1999). Data on children of identifiable bisexual parents are not available, and information about non-White lesbian children or gay parents is hard to find (but see Wainright et al., 2004, for a diverse sample). However, the data are still limited, and any conclusions should be viewed as tentative... It must be admitted that research on lesbians and gay parents and their children, although no longer new, is still limited in breadth. Although studies of gay fathers and their children have been done (Patterson, 2004), it is less known about gay fathers children than about lesbian mothers. Although studies of adolescents and young adults of lesbian and gay parentage are available (eg, Gershon et al., 1999; Tasker & Golombok, 1997; Wainright et al., 2004), relatively few studies focus on lesbian or gay parents during adolescence or adulthood.
Pada tahun 2010 American Psychological Association, The California Psychological Association, The American Psychiatric Association, dan American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy menyatakan:
Relatively few studies that directly examine gay fathers, but those who found found that gay men are equally healthy and have parents, compared with heterosexual men. Empirical data available do not provide a basis for assuming gay men are not suitable for parenthood. If gay parents are basically unfeasible, even small studies with convenience samples will be easily detected. This has not happened yet. Raised by a single father does not seem to be inherently detrimental to the psychological health of children more than being raised by a single mother. Homosexuality is not a pathology or a deficit, and there is no theoretical reason to expect gay fathers to cause harm to their children. Thus, although more research is needed, the available data put a burden of empirical evidence on those who argue that having a gay father is dangerous.
Consensus
Scientific research that has directly compared results for children with gay and lesbian parents with outcomes for children with heterosexual parents has found that children raised by same-sex couples physically or psychologically healthy, capable, and successful such as those raised by the opposite sex partner. Despite the fact that a lot of legal discrimination and injustice remain a significant challenge for these families. The main associations of mental health professionals in the US, Canada, and Australia, have not identified credible empirical studies that show otherwise. The sociologist Wendy Manning echoed their conclusion that "Research [reveals] that children are raised in same-sex parent families as children raised in different sex parent families across different spectrums of child welfare measures: academic performance, cognitive development , social development, psychological health, early sexual activity, and substance abuse. "The range of these studies allows conclusions to be drawn beyond the narrow spectrum of child welfare, and further literature suggests that the financial, psychological and physical well-being of parents is enhanced by marriage and that children benefit from being raised by two parents in a legally recognized union. There is evidence that core families with homosexual parents are more egalitarian in the distribution of their home and childcare activities, and thus less likely to accept traditional gender roles. Nevertheless, the American Academy of Pediatrics reports that there is no difference in interests and hobbies between children with homosexual versus heterosexual parents.
Since the 1970s, it has become increasingly clear that it is a family process (such as parenting quality, psychosocial well-being of parents, quality and satisfaction with family relationships, and levels of cooperation and harmony among parents) that contribute to determining well-being and child outcomes rather than family structure, such as, number, sex, sexuality and parental cohabitation status. Since the late 1980s, as a result, it has been established that children and adolescents can be well adapted in non-traditional settings as in traditional settings. Furthermore, while factors such as the number and status of parental cohabitation can and do affect the quality of relationships in aggregate, the same has not been shown for sexuality. According to sociologist Judith Stacey of New York University, "There is rarely a lot of consensus in the field of social science as in the case of gay childcare, which is why the American Academy of Pediatrics and all major professional organizations with expertise in the field of welfare children have issued reports and resolutions to support the rights gay and lesbian parents ". These organizations include the American Academy of Pediatrics, the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, the American Psychiatric Association, the American Psychological Association, the American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy, the American Psychoanalytic Association, the National Association of Social Workers, the American Child Welfare League, North America in Adopted Children, and the Canadian Psychological Association. In 2006, Gregory M. Herek stated in the American Psychologist: "If gay, lesbian or bisexual parents are inherently less capable than comparable heterosexual parents, their children will be proof of trouble regardless of this type of sample.This pattern is clearly not yet observed.Given the consistent failure in this research literature to refute the null hypothesis, the burden of empirical evidence is on those who argue that children from sexual minority parents are worse off than children of heterosexual parents. "
Studies and analysis included the 1999 analysis of Bridget Fitzgerald on research on gay and lesbian care, published in Marriage and Family Review, which found that the available studies generally conclude that "parental sexual orientation is ineffective, or an important predictor of successful childhood development "and Gregory M. Herek's 2006 analysis at the American Psychologist, who said:" Despite the many variations in their sample quality, research design, measurement methods, and data analysis techniques, findings to date have been very consistent Empirical studies comparing children who were raised by parents of sexual minorities with people raised by comparable heterosexual parents found no reliable gaps in mental health or social adjustment Differences not yet found in the ability to parent between lesbian mothers and heteroses exams Studies that examine gay fathers are fewer in number but do not suggest that gay men are less fit or can be parents than heterosexual men. "In addition, some fear that children will inherit gender parental dysfunction or alternative mental health problems in the case of transparent parents, but there are studies that show" the lack of evidence that children raised by transgender parents have more opportunities great to experience [..].] development issues than those raised by non-transgender parents "and further clinical research suggests that" children of sex parents do not develop gender or mental disforia "because of parental diagnosis those with gender identity disorder A 1996 meta-analysis found "there was no difference in the size between heterosexual and homosexual parents regarding parenting style, emotional adjustment, and child sexual orientation (ren)", and meta-analysis 2008 reached similar conclusions.
In June 2010, a 25-year longitudinal study by Nanette Gartrell of the University of California and Henny Bos of the University of Amsterdam was released. Gartrell and Bos studied 78 children conceived through donor insemination and raised by lesbian mothers. Mothers were interviewed and given a clinical questionnaire during pregnancy and when their children were 2, 5, 10, and 17 years old. In the abstract of the report, the authors state: "According to their mother's report, 17-year-old girls and sons of lesbian mothers were rated significantly higher in social, school/academic, and total competence and significantly lower in social problems, , aggressive, and problem-externalizing behavior of their match-age counterparts in Achenbach's normative samples of American youth. "
A broad analysis of social science literature has become a question of the psychological outcomes of children raised by same-sex parents by the Australian Institute of Family Studies in 2013 concluding that "there is now strong evidence that families of the same sex are supportive families in which to raise children "and related to lesbian care"... a clear-cut benefit appears to be related to: the quality of parenting experiences compared to their colleagues who are cared for in heterosexual couples' families, the tolerance of adults and children who are more great sex and gender diversity, and gender flexibility is shown by children, especially boys. "
Sex Sexual orientation and gender roles
A number of studies have examined whether lesbian children and gay parents are more likely to identify as lesbian and gay. In a 2001 review of 21 studies, Judith Stacey and Timothy Biblarz found that researchers often downplay findings that show differences in child sex, preference and sexual behavior, suggesting that the heterosexual environment has hampered scientific investigations in the area. Their findings suggest that children with lesbians or gay parents appear to be less gender-specific and more likely to be open to homoerotic relationships, which may be partly due to familial or family familiarization processes or "contextual effects," although children are raised by same-sex couples not more likely to identify themselves as bisexual, lesbian, or gay and most of them identify as heterosexual. According to the US Census, 80% of children raised by same-sex couples in the US are their biological children. When it comes to family familiarization and "contextual effects," Stacey and Biblarz show that children with such parents are disproportionately more likely to grow in relatively less tolerant, less heterosexist environments, environments, and societies.
A 2005 review by Charlotte J. Patterson for the American Psychological Association found that the available data did not show higher levels of homosexuality among lesbian children or gay parents. The 2006 Herek Review describes the available data at a limited point. Stacey and Biblarz and Herek emphasize that sexual orientation and gender identification of children has limited relevance to discussions about fitness or parental policies based on the same. In the 2010 review comparing single-family fathers with other family types, Stacey and Biblarz, "We know very little about how parents influence the development of their children's sexual identity or how they intersect with gender."
Children of LGBT parents have no difference in their gender role behaviors compared with those observed in heterosexual family structures. In fact, a study by Bos and Sandfort (2009) also revealed that children raised by same-sex couples feel less pressured to follow gender stereotypes.
Homophobia and transphobia
Children may struggle with negative attitudes about their parents from abuse they may encounter with life in society.
More
Stephen Hicks, a reader in the field of health and social care at the University of Salford, questioned the importance of trying to establish that lesbians or gay parents are handicapped or fit. He argues that such positions are flawed because they are told by ideologies that oppose or support such families. In Hicks view:
Instead of asking whether gay parenting is bad for children, I think we should ask how contemporary sexuality discourse maintains the idea that lesbian and gay families are essentially different and, indeed, lacking. But to ask this, I think we need more research on lesbian and gay parenting... More of this kind of work will help us to ask more complex questions about parenting forms that continue to offer some novels and approaches that challenging for family life.
Misrepresentation by opponent
In a 2006 statement, the Canadian Psychological Association released an updated statement to their 2003 and 2005 conclusions, saying, "The CPA recognizes and respects that people and institutions are entitled to their opinions and positions on the issue, but the CPA is concerned that some institutions misrepresent the findings of psychological research to support their positions, when their positions are more accurately based on belief systems or other values. "Several professional organizations have noted that studies opposing LGBT care claims as evidence that same-sex couples are unjustified parents actually takes care of same-sex parenting, and therefore does not allow any conclusions to be drawn about the effects of gender or parental sexual orientation. In contrast, these studies, which only took samples of heterosexual parents, found that it is better for children to be raised by two parents, not one, and/or that divorce or death of parents has a negative effect on children. In Perry v. Brown, where Judge Vaughn Walker finds that the available studies of stepchildren, who are opposed to same-sex marriage are quoted to support their position that it is best for a child to be raised by his mother and his biological father, do not isolate "the genetic link between parent and children as a variable to be tested "and only compares" children raised by married and biological parents with children raised by single parents, unmarried mothers, stepfathers and coexisting parents, "and thus "comparing different family structures and not emphasizing biology." Perry also cites research indicating that "children adopted or children conceived using sperm or egg donors are equally tailored to both when children are raised by their biological parents. "
Gregory M. Herek noted in 2006 that "empirical research can not reconcile disagreements about core values, but is very good at dealing with facts." The policy debate will be poor if this important source of knowledge is simply ignored, "he said. , he says 'quarrels'.
Other aspects
Wedding
Same-sex marriage is often raised as an issue in the debate on the legalization of same-sex marriage.
Trans parenting
There is little or no visibility or public support through pregnancy and parenting resources directed to trans parents.
While "once gay and lesbian parents attain parental status [...] they almost never lose it" This is not the case for trans parents, as seen with the cases of Suzanne Daly (1983) and Martha Boyd (2007), two trans women who both have custody of them, are associated with biological children, terminated based on their diagnosis of gender identity disorder and their trans status. They are considered to have abandoned their role as "father" through their MTF transition, and are considered to have acted selfishly in placing their own sexual needs/identity before the welfare of their children. These cases are among the many legal custody battles fought by trans parents in which US courts have completely ignored the defendant's accusation as "parent" as opposed to "mother" or "father", a very gender role and come with an understanding social rigidity of normative parental behavior.. In the case of trans individuals who wish to become parents and legally recognized as mothers or fathers of their children, the courts often refuse to legally recognize the role because of biological discrimination. An example is the case of X, Y, and Z vs. England, where X, a trans man who has established a stable relationship with Y, a biological woman who gave birth to Z through X's always artificial insemination, was denied the right to be registered as Z's father on their birth certificate due to the fact that they were not directly inseminated Y.
Recently, Canada has begun to recognize the right of trans parent in terms of arresting prisoners and legal recognition of parental status. In 2001, Leslie (formerly Howard) Forester was allowed to retain custody of her daughter after her former colleague filed custody on the basis of Leslie's transition. The court ruled that "the transsexuality of the applicant, in itself, without further evidence, would not constitute a material change in circumstances, nor would it be considered a negative factor in the determination of prisoners," marks a landmark case in family law in which "one's transsexuality is irrelevant as a factor in his ability to be a good parent. "In addition, Jay Wallace, a trans-man resident of Toronto, Canada," was allowed to identify as Stanley's father in Ontario's Statement of Live Birth Formal province, "marking the genetic and bio- sex in relation to the role of parents.
See also
Social
- Coparenting
- LGBT adoption
- LGBT adoption in Europe
- same-sex marriage and family
- Surrogacy
- Third party reproduction
Medical:
- Artificial insemination
- Assisted reproductive technology
- In vitro fertilization
- Sperm donation
Research:
- New Family Structure Study : Published by Mark Regnerus in 2012, the study is widely discredited by researchers, and who claim to show that children of gay and lesbian parents are affected by those educated by parents in same-sex relationships.
- Homosexual parenting in animals
Regional:
- Similar adoption in Brazil
Further reading
- Goodfellow, Aaron (2015). Gay Father, Their Kids, and Kinship . New York: Fordham University Press. ISBN: 9780823266036. OCLCÃ, 892895171. < span>
- HÃÆ' Â © rault, Laurence, ed. (2014). La parentÃÆ' Â © transgenre . Aix-en-Provence: Hitting the universitaires de Provence. ISBN: 9782853999328. OCLCÃ,881703694.
References
External links
- Family of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgendered Parents (LGBT) - Literature Review prepared for The Australian Psychological Society (2007)
- Price Too High - Case Against Gay Parenting Restrictions (second edition updated) (2006), a publication by the ACLU, including detailed review of studies and research.
- American Psychological Association (APA) Directorate of Public Interests: A Summary of Research on Parenting and Gay Care (2005)
- Brief information was submitted to the House Legislative Committee of Bill C38 By the Canadian Psychological Association (2005)
- Lesbian and Gay Parents and Their Children: Research on the Family Life Cycle
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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