Chinese writing, culture, and institutions were imported in its entirety by Vietnam, Korea, Japan, and Ryukyus over a long period. Chinese Buddhism spread in East Asia between the 2nd and 5th centuries, followed by Confucianism when these countries developed a strong central government that mimics Chinese institutions. In Vietnam and Korea, and for a shorter time in Japan and Ryukyus, the graduate-officials were chosen to use tests on Confucian classics that mimic Chinese civil service exams. Familiarity along with classical Chinese and Confucian values ​​provide a common framework for intellectuals and ruling elites throughout the region. All of this is based on the use of Chinese Literature, which is the medium of scholarships and governments throughout the region. Although each of these countries developed a vernacular writing system and used it for popular literature, they continued to use Mandarin for all formal writing until it was swept away by rising nationalism around the end of the nineteenth century.
During the 20th century, several Japanese historians classified these three countries with China as a region of East Asian culture. According to Sadao Nishijima (????, 1919-1998), it is characterized by Chinese writing, Mahayana Buddhism in Chinese translation, Confucianism and Chinese legal code. The concept of "East Asia of the world" has seen little interest from scholars in other countries after its appropriation by the Japanese military in terms of such "Commonwealth Joint South East Asia". Nishijima is also credited with coining the expression of Kanji bunka-ken (?????, "Chinese character-character sphere") and Ch? Ka bunka-ken (?????, "Chinese cultural sphere"), which was then borrowed into Chinese. These four countries are also referred to as "Sinic World" by some writers.
Video Adoption of Chinese literary culture
Sastra Cina
At the beginning of the present era, Chinese manuscripts are the only writing system available in East Asia. The classic works of the Warring States and Han dynasties such as Mencius , Zuo Comment and the Sima Qian History Historical Note are admired as models of prose styles despite the times. Then the writers tried to imitate the classical style, writing in a form known as Chinese Literature. So the style of writing, based on the Ancient Chinese from the classical period, remains very static because the various Chinese varieties develop and deviate into incomprehensible, and they are all different from the written form. Moreover, in response to phonetic friction, oral varieties develop compound words and new syntactic forms. For comparison, the language of literature is admired for its steadfastness and economic expression, but it is difficult to understand when read, even in local pronunciation. This deviation is a classic example of diglossia.
All formal writing in China was conducted in Chinese Literature until the Four May Movement in 1919, after which it was replaced by Vernative Chinese Writing. This new form is based on the vocabulary and grammar of modern Mandarin dialects, especially the Beijing dialect, and is a written form of Modern Standard Chinese. Chinese literature survived for the time in journalism and government, but was replaced there also in the late 1940s.
Buddhism reached China from Central Asia in the first century AD, and over the ensuing centuries Buddhist scriptures were translated into Chinese Literature. The Buddhist missionaries then spread these texts throughout East Asia, and the new religious learners learned the language of these sacred texts.
Throughout East Asia, Chinese Literature is the language of administration and scholarship. Although Vietnam, Korea and Japan each developed a writing system for their own language, this is limited to popular literature. Tionghoa remained the formal writing medium until it was displaced by vernacular writing in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Although they do not speak Chinese for oral communication, each country has its own tradition of reading the text aloud, called Sino-Xenic pronunciation, which gives clues to the Central Chinese pronunciation. Chinese words with these pronunciations are also widely borrowed into local languages, and currently more than half of their vocabulary.
Thus Chinese Literature became an international language scholarship in East Asia. As Latin in Europe it allows scholars from different countries to communicate, and provides a stock of roots from which technical terms combined can be made. Unlike Latin, Chinese Literature is not used for oral communication, and has no Latin neutrality, the language of an existing (and powerful) neighboring country.
The books in Chinese Literature are widely distributed. In the 7th century and perhaps earlier, molding of logs had been developed in China. Initially, it was only used to copy Buddhist scriptures, but then secular works were also printed. In the 13th century, a type of moving metal used by government printers in Korea, but apparently not widely used in China, Vietnam or Japan. At the same time, the reproduction of the manuscript remained important until the end of the 19th century.
In contrast, western and northern Chinese neighbors, including Tibetans, Sogdians, Tocharians, Uighurs and Mongols, write in their own language using alphabetical writing systems. However, Sogdians living in China, such as Li Baoyu, are often bilingual and adopt Chinese names after their families have lived there for generations.
Maps Adoption of Chinese literary culture
Vietnamese
The northern part of Vietnam was occupied by imperial and Chinese states for almost all periods from 111 BC to 938 AD. When the country reaches independence, it continues to use Chinese Literature. At first, Buddhist monks dominated government and scholarship in the country. The earliest writings left by Vietnamese writers are poems from the late 10th century, in Chinese, by Buddhist monks Lac Thuan and KhuÆ'ngng Vi? T.
After three short-lived dynasties, the Ly Dynasty (1009-1225) was founded with the support of Buddhist clergy, but soon increased Confucian influence. A Confucian Literary Temple was founded in the capital, Hanoi, in 1070. The civil service examination on the Chinese model began in 1075, and the following year a college was set up to train the children of the ruling elite in Confucian classics. The influence of the Confucian literati grew in the next Tran dynasty (1225-1400) until they had a monopoly in the public office, which they maintained, almost undisturbed, until the inspection system was abolished by the French colonial government in 1913.
The documents that survived the beginning of the Ly Dynasty included Decrees on Capital Transfer (to Hanoi) beginning in 1010. When China invaded the country in 1076, General LÃÆ'½ Th ?? ng Ki? T wrote poetry 4 lines Mountains and rivers in the South country . His poem is the first of a series of Vietnam's determination to fight against the northern invaders, all written in Chinese Literature. Others include Calls to Armed Forces Officials, (1285), Returning to the Capital (1288), the Great Proclamation of the Validation of Wu (1428) and an Address to the Army (1789). History history, beginning with Annals of i Vi? T , also written in Chinese, as well as poetry and fiction of various kinds.
In the centuries after independence, Vietnamese writers adapted Chinese characters to produce scripts for their own language. This script, called Ch? nÃÆ'Â'm, quite complex, and accessible only to those who can read Chinese. For centuries it became a vehicle for developing vernacular literature, but all formal writing continued to be in Chinese Literature, except for two brief reform attempts. When h? QuÃÆ'½ Ly seized the throne in 1400, as well as pursued a land reform program, he attempted to destroy the power of Confucian literati by making the Vietnamese language and translating the classical work to make it available to everyone. This was reversed in 1407 after Ming Ming invaded the country. A similar reform was tried by Nguy? N Hu? from 1788, but again reversed at the beginning of the successful Nguyen Dynasty (1802-1945). Finally, Chinese Literature and Ch? nÃÆ'Â'm was replaced by a Latin-based Latin alphabet in the early 20th century.
The Vietnamese intellectuals continued to use Chinese Literature into the early 20th century. For example, nationalist Phan Boi Chau (1867-1940) wrote his book The History of the Missing Vietnam (1905) and other tracts in Chinese Literature, and also uses it to communicate when in Japan and China, since he does not speak Japanese or China.
Korean
China was first introduced to Korea in the first century BC, when the Han dynasty invaded the north of the peninsula and established the Four Commanders. Buddhism arrived in Korea from China at the end of the 4th century, and spread from there to Japan. The Kingdom of Goguryeo strengthened itself by adopting Chinese institutions, laws and cultures, including Buddhism. An influential Korean Buddhist scholar, Wonhyo (617-686) writes extensively in Chinese.
The use of Chinese Literature grew after the unification of the country by Silla at the end of the 7th century. A national institute (Gukhak) was founded in 682 to teach classical Chinese. Korean names and names are changed to Chinese (with Sino-Korean pronunciation), so they can be used in Chinese Literature. The exams of civil service on Confucian classics were introduced in 958.
During the Goryeo period (918-1392), Korean clerks added an interlinear annotation known as gugyeol ("oral ornament") to Chinese text to enable them to be read in Korean compositions with Korean glosses. Many of the
All official writings, including official records of Korean dynasties and almost all government documents, were conducted in Chinese until the end of the 19th century. Likewise the works of Confucian scholars of Toegye and Yulgok in the 16th century and Jeong Yak-yong at the end of the 18th century. Some fiction genres are written in Chinese, including romance, beginning with the 15th Century New Story from the Golden Turtle Mountain . The Eou yadam (c) 1600) started a new genre of unofficial history, which became very popular in the 18th and 19th centuries.
The initial attempt to write Korean uses a number of complex and heavy systems that are collectively known as Idu, using Chinese characters for both their meaning and sound. The Hangul alphabet announced in 1446 brought Korea's readings and writings within the reach of almost the entire population. King Sejong's announcement of the new manuscript, the True Voice for the Teaching of the People , is itself written in Chinese Literature like most such documents, and illustrates the new letters in terms of Chinese metaphysics. Although the new manuscript was clearly more efficient, it was limited to informal writing and recording of folklore until, as part of the Gabo Reformation in December 1894, civilian checks were removed and government documents should be printed in Korean. Even then Korea is written with composite scripts, with Chinese characters (Hanja) for Sino-Korean words that now compose more than half of the language vocabulary interspersed with Hangul for original words and suffixes. Hanja is still taught in schools in both parts of Korea, but is no longer used in North Korea in the late 1940s, and is increasingly rarely used in South Korea.
Ryukyu
Japanese
Unlike Vietnam and Korea, no part of Japan has ever been occupied by China. Chinese writing was brought to Japan by Buddhist missionaries from Korea, probably around the 4th or 5th centuries. Early 8th century histories Nihon Shoki and Kojiki praised a scholar called Wani from Baekje by first bringing Confucian classics to Japan, although many scholars have questioned this account. In 607 Japan had opened direct contact with the Sui Chinese dynasty, continued under the Tang dynasty, and began importing Chinese wholesale cultures and languages. Even the layout of the Japanese capital of Nara is modeled in the Tang capital of Chang'an.
All formal writing during the Nara period (710-794) and Heian (794-1185) were performed in Chinese Literature. The earliest collection of Chinese poetry by Japanese authors ( Kanshi ) is Kaif? , compiled in 751. A series of Six National History in Chinese style, covering the period to 887, is written in the Nara and Heian periods. The seventh began but abandoned in the 10th century. The Ritsury? (757) and Engi shiki (927) is the legal code of the Chinese model. Because Japanese is very different from Chinese, with different inflections and wording, Japanese intellectuals developed my kundoku kanbun, a complex method for making Chinese Literature records so they can be rearranged and read as Japanese.
There have been experiments with adapting Chinese characters to write Japanese since the seventh century, and at the beginning of the 10th century this has been simplified into the kana syllables still in use today. However, the Chinese have prestige in the Heian period that only women and men in Japan have a low status. As a result, court ladies generated much Japanese-language fiction during that period, with the most notable being the Tale of Genji .
Around 700, an imperial academy (Daigaku-ry?) Was established to train noble sons in Chinese and classical and to organize the first phase of civil service examinations. It flourished in the 9th century but declined on the 10th, when the central bureaucracy and Chinese usage faded. By 1135 the site was overgrown; buildings were destroyed in the great fire of 1177. In the 13th century, Chinese literary knowledge became so limited that the government had to delegate official writings, including correspondence before the failed Mongol invasion of Japan, to Buddhist clergy.
The re-establishment of a strong central government by the Tokugawa shogunate in 1600 followed by the revival of Confucianism. Chinese literature remains the media of choice for formal writing until the end of the 19th century. A mixing style of Chinese and Japanese elements ( s? R? Bun ) comes from medieval hentai-kanbun ("Chinese writing variations") used in such works chronicle history Azuma Kagami (1266). It was used during the Meiji period, and until the end of the Second World War, by men for diaries and correspondence, and for various public notices. Both have been replaced with writing in Japanese, using a script that combines Chinese characters (Kanji) and kana syllables.
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