The history of deaf education in the United States began in the early 1800s when Cobbs School of Virginia, an oral school, was founded by William Bolling and John Braidwood, and Connecticut Asylum for Deaf and Mute, a school manual, established by Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet and Laurent Clerc. When Cobbs School closed in 1816, the manual method, which uses American Sign Language, became commonplace in deaf schools for much of the rest of the century. In the late 1800s, schools began using oral methods, which only allowed the use of speech, as opposed to the previously existing manual methods. Students caught using sign language in oral programs are often punished. Oral methods were used for many years until sign language instruction gradually began to return to deaf education.
Video History of deaf education in the United States
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Before the 1800s, little, if any, educational opportunities existed for deaf children in America. Some wealthy families send their children to European schools, but many unclassy children do not have access to education.
Initial oral education in the United States
In the nineteenth and early nineteenth centuries, many rich colonists sent their deaf children to Europe to receive school. The most famous deaf educational institution is the Braidwood Academy in Edinburgh, Scotland, founded in 1760 by Thomas Braidwood as the "Academy for Deaf and Mute." The Braidwood Academy is a highly classified private oral secret school about its method, sharing only their methodology with selected people.
The Bolling family, living in Virginia, was the most prominent colonist to send their deaf children to the Braidwood Academy. Thomas Bolling and his wife Elizabeth Gay (who is also his first cousin) have three deaf children, John, Mary, and Thomas Jr., and at least two children who heard. John was the first of three brothers who entered Braidwood College in 1771, with Mary and Thomas Jr. come later. The three children of Bolling arrived back in the United States in 1783; however, they fell ill shortly after arriving home, and John died on October 11, 1783. Therefore, it can not be determined how effective the ten year oral instruction he received. Mary and Thomas Jr. lived for at least four decades, and comments about Thomas Jr. noting that he is "a miracle of accomplishment."
The next generation of Bollings hearing has children with hearing impairment, and they want their children to be educated in the United States. William, the last son of Thomas and Elizabeth, married Mary's cousin, who gave birth to five children, two of whom were deaf. The couple's first deaf son, William Albert, encouraged his father's desire to create a school for the hearing impaired in America. William Bolling met John Braidwood, a descendant of Thomas Braidwood, after he arrived in America in 1812. Bolling invited Braidwood to stay at his home when Braidwood completed a more permanent life arrangement. Braidwood discussed with Bolling his desire to open a school similar to the Braidwood Academy in America. After many setbacks, the Cobbs School was founded in 1815. It was closed about one and a half years later, in the fall of 1816, when Braidwood's personal problems caused him to leave school and Bolling could no longer keep him financially.
Initial manual education in the United States
In 1812 in New England, Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet met a small girl named Alice Cogswell, who inspired him to create a school for the hearing impaired in the United States. In 1815, he went to Europe to gain insight into the method of teaching deaf students. He attempted to learn from the Braidwood system, but the administrators wanted him to sign the contract, remain in school for several years to be trained in oralism, and agreed to keep the teaching methods of the school secret; Gallaudet rejects this. He attended lectures in France by AbbÃÆ' Â © Sicard presented two successful students from the National Institute of Paris for the Deaf-Mute, Jean Massieu and Laurent Clerc. Gallaudet spent several months at school, and he convinced Clerc, a thirty-year-old teacher assistant, to return with him to Hartford, Connecticut. On their return to America, they founded Connecticut Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb, later called the American School for the Deaf, in 1817. Gallaudet was its director, and Clerc was the first deaf teacher in America. Alice Cogswell was one of the first seven students.
For much of the rest of this century, the education of deaf children using sign language, a practice known as manualism, continues to grow. About forty percent of all teachers are deaf. More than thirty schools for the deaf are open, mostly manuals. William Willard was the first deaf overseer in America and founded Indiana School for the Deaf in 1843. Gallaudet College (now Gallaudet University) was founded in Washington, D.C in 1864 with the son of Thomas Gallaudet, Edward Miner Gallaudet, as school superintendent. Edward Miner Gallaudet strongly believes in the use of sign language and has a number of arguments with Alexander Graham Bell, an oral.
Prior to the 1860s and before the American Civil War, manual language was popular among deaf communities and also supported by a community of listeners. The hearing community sees deafness as "[isolating] individuals from the Christian community". At that time, Americans were quite religious (especially Christian), and beneficiaries believed that sign language opened up the minds and souls of deaf individuals to God. Through this, the hearing community believes that manualism brings deaf people closer to God and opens the deaf to the gospel, which leads to general acceptance.
Before the 1860s, the American hearing community saw manualism, sign language, as art, and natural beauty. They also think of deaf people who sign like the Romans because of the pantomime that is part of the language.
Maps History of deaf education in the United States
Change from manual-dominated education to oral education
At the end of the American Civil War in the late 1860s, the argument for "Survival of the Fittest" applied to the issue of education for the deaf as a result of the Darwinist perspective on Evolution. This movement makes the manualists argue their view that the signs are closer to nature because the first thing a baby learns is a signal, which is similar to sign language. For the deaf community, manualism at the time was regarded as a gift from God. During certain times in the United States, there is an oralism that gives a negative view of manualism because, in his opinion, it is not a natural language.
Support for oralism gained momentum in the late 1860s and the use of manualism began to decline. Many in the auditory community now support an evolutionary perspective, which describes deaf people who use manual language similar to "low animals". Some people who hear say what separates humans from animals, which in turn causes manual language to be viewed as inhumane. The first school for oralism opened in the 1860s called the New York Institute for the Increase of Deaf Instruction and the Clarke Institute for the Deaf-Mute (now the Clarke School for Hearing and Speech).
At that time manual teaching was restricted because the American Hearing Society saw deaf people who used it as different, as foreigners, or as groups with separate languages ​​which were a threat to the hearing community. Members of the hearing community who support oralism are offended by deaf people who have their own group identity and refuse to integrate into a larger community.
Oralists believe that manual language makes people deaf different, which in turn makes them believe that deaf people are not normal. Oralists believe that the teaching of oralism allows deaf children to become more normal. Oralists strongly believe that deaf children should make every effort to learn how to live apart from their incompetence, thus promoting the teaching of lip reading, mouth movement, and the use of hearing technology. Lisan also argues that if deaf people continue to use manual language as a form of their communication, they will never be integrated in other societies.
The model figure for oralism and against the use of sign language is Alexander Graham Bell, who created the Volta Bureau in Washington, D.C. to pursue the study of deafness. Two other Americans who encouraged the establishment of an oral school in the United States were Horace Mann and Samuel Gridley Howe, who traveled to Germany to see their oral schools and who wanted to model them.
In 1880, an event called the Second International Congress on Deaf Education (which, despite its name, was actually the first) took place. The Second International Congress is an international meeting for deaf educators from at least seven countries. There were five delegates from America and about 164 total delegates were present. The congress was planned and organized by a committee formed by the Pereire Society, a group opposed to sign language. More than half of the people invited are known as oral experts; Therefore, Congress is biased and most, if not all, of the resolutions chosen by delegates provide results that support oral methods. Many of the resolutions are spoken in a way that supports oral methods, such as "Considering the indisputable superiority of speeches about signs in restoring the dumb deaf to the public, and in giving him a more perfect language knowledge,/Declaration-/That oral method should be more favored rather than signs for education and instruction of deaf and dumb ". Until the 1890s, deaf education in the United States was limited to children, but Lillie Eginton Warren and his assistant, Edward B. Nichie, extended teaching to adults.
The beginning of the 20th century
After Congress, deaf education in America is changing. Users, those who advocate the use of sign language, are effectively "kicked out" and replaced by teachers who use pure oral methods. Deaf teachers are removed from the profession and replaced with the hearing. Most schools switch to oral methods or are made as oral schools in the first place, and some manual schools remain. The work of deaf educators in oral schools, mostly women, is to prepare children with hearing impairment, which requires them to learn English, speak, and lipreading. All students sent to oral schools are forced to use oral methods, and oral schools limit the use of American Sign Language (ASL) for deaf students in the classroom and in public. Students in pure oral programs are not allowed to enter classes and are also prohibited from boarding. Students who were caught signed were punished, but the students continued to learn signs from each other anyway. One type of punishment used by deaf students is to force them to wear white gloves tied together to prevent them from using marks. Those who do not succeed under oral methods after a few years are transferred to the manual class and are considered "verbal failures" who will never know anything or can make it in the world. Some people regard this as "Dark Age of Oralism".
Edith Mansford Fitzgerald opposed these views, as a deaf woman who felt that oralist methods had hampered her learning. In 1926, he published a book, titled Straight Languages ​​for Deaf: An Instructional System for Deaf Children was published in 1926 and is widely influential in deaf education. He Fitzgerald Key at one point is used in about 75% of institutes that teach deaf people.
Instructor
At the beginning of the 20th century there was an increase in deaf instructors at many schools for the hearing-impaired. In America, one of the biggest debates facing deaf communities with institutions is whether to hire more deaf instructors than to hear. Part of the reason why deaf parents who want deaf instructors is to let their children have an example, by allowing more deaf instructors allowing their children to see possible future for themselves through their instructors.
End of the 20th century
The almost exclusive use of pure oral methods in deaf education continued into the 20th century. Later, in the late 1960s, Roy Kay Holcomb coined the term "Total Communication". This term describes the popular educational philosophy in which children can use the method of communication that best suits their needs. If a child learns better with American Sign Language or the English system, they are taught using that method. If different methods work better with other children, they receive their instructions as such. Some schools use the oral method of turning into Total Communication; others simply add marks to their existing programs or only allow children to sign among themselves without penalties. Often, "sign language" used in oral programs is built in English Language Manual (MCE) systems such as Important English Signing or Signing a Proper English or ASL mark in English word order. Programs use this system to use it with speech in practice known as Speech Supported Speech or Simultaneous Communication.
Deaf President Now
In 1988, University of Gallaudet students decided that they would take their educational matter into their own hands. The sixth President Gallaudet had announced in late 1987 that he would resign from his position as president. In early 1988, a committee that selected candidates had narrowed it down to three finalists, two of which, Harvey Corson and Dr. I. King Jordan, deaf, and one of them, Dr. Elisabeth Zinser, is listening. On March 6, it was announced hastily through a press release (although the selection committee should have come on campus) that Zinser, the only candidate for listener, had become the seventh president of the university. Previously there had been demonstrations for the deaf president (especially on March 1), but on the 6th, the protests turned into protests. Students and teachers continue to march, make signs, and give demonstrations. The students locked the gate to the university and refused to let the school open until Zinser resigned. Under intense pressure from protesting students, Zinser resigned on the fifth day of protest, March 10. Many students decide to stay on campus rather than going to Spring Break, which is scheduled to start on March 11th. Two days later, in March 13 Jane Spilman resigned and was replaced by Phil Bravin as chairman of the Supervisory Board, a task force created to find out how to reach 51% of the majority of deaf people on the Supervisory Board, and no one receives punishment for being in protest. I. King Jordan is named the eighth president - and the first deaf president - from Gallaudet University.
Deaf President Now change the education of the deaf. Before the protest, some deaf people were selected to hold doctoral degrees; However, since the protests, the number of deaf people chasing and obtaining advanced degrees has continued to rise. Also, deaf schools across America already have a "mini DPN" where students demand deaf supervisors and senior administrators. In addition, college programs are made in other countries that did not previously have one (such as Japan, Sweden, and South Africa). Presidential Deaf Now not only affects the deaf education in America, but also affects the education of deafness around the world.
In 1990, cochlear implants were approved for children ages two and up. This drastically changed the education for deaf children. More children from those who have migrated out of the bicultural-bicultural boarding school and into oral schools and major programs without additional support. Parents are not encouraged to sign contracts with their children for fear of slowing their conversation, although research has shown that the opposite is true. This move from residential schools to schools and mainstreaming of the day has led to many housing programs to save money.
Instructor
In recent years, deaf communities have fought harder for more deaf instructors in the public school system. In 1991, Carlsbad Unified School District parents went to the school board to complain about the lack of deaf instructors. Many parents claim that their children are not getting the best education they can get because of the lack of representation of deaf instructors. However, the head of the deaf education program said his instructors were trained for deaf and deaf students. Many parents feel that having an understanding background on deaf education is very different from being deaf.
Today
Currently, there are several different methods used in the education of children with hearing impairment in the United States.
All deaf students, regardless of placement, receive an Individual Educational Program (IEP) that outlines how the school will meet the individual needs of the students. Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) require students with special needs to be provided with the Right Public Education in a Minimal Restrictive Environment that fits students' needs. Government-run schools provide deaf education in a variety of settings ranging from full inclusion to school for deaf.
Bilingual-bicultural education
In this method of education, deafness is not seen as a medical problem; it is instead seen as a cultural issue. In bilingual-bilingual programs, it is recommended that deaf children be taught ASL as a first language, then taught written and/or oral English as a second language. The bilingual-cultural program emphasizes that English and ASL are the same language, and they work to help children develop an age-appropriate eloquence level in both languages. The bilingual-bicultural approach holds the belief that deaf children are visual learners as opposed to hearing learners, and therefore, academic content should be fully accessible to all deaf students (ie not dependent on receptive/expressive speaking skills, which may vary all students), so academic content is submitted in ASL and/or written English. Since it is not possible to simultaneously produce the correct American Sign Language and fluent in English, only one language is used at a time. Because there is no risk in learning sign language, a bilingual-cultural approach reduces the risk of language grabbing (a condition that occurs when children have limited access to spoken language and sign language). Many bilingual-bikini schools have dormitories, and deaf children can go to school every day or stay in dormitories as part of a housing program and visit their families on weekends and/or school vacations and vacations.
Housing program
The housing program is an educational program in which a student lives in a school for the hearing for a week and returns home on weekends or holidays rather than going to school every day. In a housing program, deaf children are completely immersed in the Deaf culture. In boarding schools, all students are deaf or deaf, so deaf students are not viewed differently. They have "common heritage,... the same language,... and a set of habits and values". People in deaf schools help continue "Blind folklore and folklore (jokes, legends, games, puzzles, etc.)" From one generation to the next. Deaf parents from children with hearing impairment often send their children to home school so they can participate in the community and culture of the Deaf. Hearing parents are often a little more reluctant because they do not want to be separated from their children. The first deaf woman to hold the position of school supervisor of residence for the hearing impaired in the US was Gertrude Galloway.
Hearing-oral and auditory-verbal education
Hearing methods-spoken and verbal-auditory, sometimes called collectively as the language of listening and speaking, is a form of oral education. These methods are based on the belief that a deaf child can learn to hear and speak and that the family does not need to learn sign language or speech. These methods are presented as communication options, and they depend on a large number of parental involvements. Children using this option may be placed in an educational placement continuum including oral schools, such as Clarke's School for Hearing and Speech, self-help classrooms for hearing-impaired students in public schools, or premier classrooms with hearing students. Although some deaf children can learn to use hearing aids to speak and understand the language, it does not apply to all deaf children. Therefore oral hearing education only places children at risk of language grabbing: a condition that arises when children have limited access to spoken language and sign language. Unlike children who receive oral-only hearing education, deaf children who use signed and spoken language speak as well as their hearing partners.
Mainstreaming and inclusion
This educational method is what happens when a deaf child attends a regular school in a regular class for at least part of the school day. Students may receive accommodation such as teachers, interpreters, assistive technology, recorders, and helpers. Inclusion can have benefits including daily interactions with hearing students and the opportunity to stay home, but can also have drawbacks such as isolation and limited availability of support.
See also
- Deaf culture
- Education for the deaf
- Deaf education history
- Sign Language History
- Schools for the hearing impaired in the United States
- Second International Congress on Deaf Education
References
Further reading
- A.A.P.T.S.D. Review of the Association: 1906 , Philadelphia, Penn.: The American Association for Promoting Teaching Speaks to the Deaf. Retrieved from Internet Archive, June 7, 2012. Note : This annual review contains extensive material on deaf education worldwide. It has been accidentally registered on the Internet Archive as the The Association Review: 1899 , although some metadata correctly identify it since 1906.
- Edwards, R. A.R. (2012). Meat Making Words: Deaf-Era Education of the 19th Century and Deaf Cultural Growth . New York: New York University Press. ISBN: 978-0-8147-2402-6.
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